Lesson Note For SS1 Chemistry (Third Term)

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Chemistry Scheme of Work for SS1 Third Term

1. Revision /Acids: Properties, Preparation and Uses. pH Scale
2-3. Bases: Properties, Preparation. Salts: Classification, Methods of preparation, Types and Characteristics
4. Carbon- Allotropes and their Structures, Properties, Differences between Diamond and Graphite.
5. Carbon (ii) Oxide (CO), Carbon (iv) Oxide (CO2): their Preparation, Properties and Uses.
6. Coal: Types of Coal, Destructive Distillation of Coal, Uses of the Products, Coke: Gasification and Uses.
7. Metallic Carbonate: Occurrences, Preparation and Uses, Test for Trioxocarbonate ion. Trioxocarbonate (iv) acid: Preparation, Properties and Uses.
8-9. Introduction to Hydrocarbons: Sources of Hydrocarbons, Classification of Aliphatic Hydrocarbons. Petroleum and Natural gases: Refining of Petroleum by Fractional Distillation, Uses of different Fractions, Cracking of Petroleum (Thermal and Catalytic), Anti-knock and Octane rating.
10. Applied Chemistry: Raw material used in Chemical industries and their Sources. Division of the Chemical Industries: Heavy chemicals, Fine chemicals, Fertilizers, Plastics, Metallurgy, Pharmaceutical, Glass, Ceramics, Cements, Soap and Detergents.
11. Revision.
12-13. Examination

REFERENCE MATERIALS
New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by Osei Yaw Ababio
New System Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by Tan Yan Ton el al
WAEC past Questions and Answers
UTME past Questions and Answers

Lesson Note on Chemistry for SS1 Second Term

WEEK 1 TOPIC: Revision /Acids: Properties, Preparation and Uses. pH Scale

Lesson Note On Revision /Acids: Properties, Preparation and Uses. pH Scale

CONTENT

• Definition.
• Properties.
• Preparation and uses.
• pH.

 

ACIDS

Definition: An acid is substance which in aqueous solution produces hydroxonium ion (H₃O⁺) or hydrogen ion (H⁺) as the only positive ion. Also, acids can be referred to as proton donor.

 

CLASSES OF ACIDS

There are two classes of acids:

(1). Organic acids occur as natural products in plants and animal material.

Organic acids	Source
Ethanoic acids	Vinegar
Lactic acids	Milk
Citric acids	Lime, Lemon
Amino acids	Proteins
Fatty acids	Fats and oils
Ascorbic acids (Vitamin C).	Oranges

 

(2). Inorganic acid: Inorganic acid can be prepared from mineral elements or inorganic matter.

Inorganic acid	Formula	Constituents
Hydrochloric acid	HCl	Hydrogen, Chlorine
Tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid	H2SO4	Hydrogen, Sulphur & Oxygen
Trioxonitrate(VI) acid	HNO3	Hydrogen, Nitrogen & Oxygen

An acid is also defined as a substance which produces hydroxonium ion as the only positive ion when dissolved in water.

H⁺_(aq)    +    H₂O_(l)       H₃O⁺_(aq)

Acid can be dilute or concentrated depending on the amount of water added. A dilute acid is acid produced when a large amount of water is added to a small amount of acid. A concentrated acid is acid produced when only a little amount of water is added to a relatively large amount of acid.

 

STRENGTH OF AN ACID

The strength of an acid can either be weak or strong.

(1) Strong acids: are acids which ionize completely in aqueous solution and such acid solution having a high concentration of H⁺. Examples are HCl, H₂SO₄ and HNO₃.

H₂SO₄       2H⁺ + SO₄^2-

HNO₃                          H⁺ + NO₃^–

HCl            H⁺ + Cl^–

 

(2) Weak acids: are acids which ionize or dissociate slightly or partially in aqueous solution and such acid solution have a low concentration of hydrogen ions. Examples are ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH), H₂CO₃, H₃PO₄, H₂SO₃.

 

H₂CO₃                       2H⁺        +   CO₃^2-

H₃PO₄                       3H⁺        +   PO₄^3-

CH₃COOH                     H⁺         +   CH₃COO^–

H₂SO₃                     2H⁺         +   SO₃^2-

 

BASICITY OF AN ACID

The basicity of an acid is the number of replaceable hydrogen ions, H⁺, in one molecule of the acid.

Acid	Basicity
Hydrochloric   acid	Monobasic
Tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid	Dibasic
Tetraoxophosphate(v) acid	Tribasic
Ethanoic acid	Monobasic

 

EVALUATION

1. Define the term acid
2. Differentiate between strong acid and concentrated acid
3. What is the basicity of the following acids: HCl, HNO₃, H₂SO₄

 

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACID

1. They have a sour taste.
2. They turn blue litmus paper to red.
3. They are corrosive in nature especially the strong acid.
4. In aqueous solution, they conduct electricity.

 

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACID

Reaction with metals: They react with metals to liberate hydrogen gas and salt of metal i.e

Acid       +          Metal                         Salt           + Hydrogen gas.

E.g.  2HCl_(aq)   +   Zn_(s)                      ZnCl_2(aq)     +    H_2(g)

H₂SO_4(aq)  +   Mg_(s)                     MgSO_4(aq)    +    H_2(g)

 

They react with soluble bases to form salt and water only. This reaction is known as neutralization.

Acid     +         Base              salt        +      water

E.g  H₂SO_4(aq)     +      2KOH_(aq)           K₂SO_4(aq)   +    2H₂O_(l)

2HCl_(aq)     +       CaO_(s)            CaCl_2(aq)      +      H₂O_(l)

 

1. They react with trioxocarbonates (iv) salts to liberate carbon (iv) oxide, salt and water  e. Acid   +  trioxocarbonate (iv)            Salt  +     Water   +    CO₂

E.g  2HCl _(aq) +    Na₂CO_3(aq)                   2NaCl_(aq)  +      H₂O_(l)  +  CO_2(g)

 

PREPARATION OF ACIDS

Acid can be prepared by using the following methods:

1. Dissolving an acid anhydride in water: Acid anhydride is oxides of non-metal that dissolve in water to produce the corresponding acids e.g SO₂, CO2, CO, NO₂, SO₃.

SO_2(g)      +        H₂O_(l)              H₂SO_3(aq)

CO_2(g)    +        H₂O_(l)              H₂CO_3(aq)

SO_3(g)    +        H₂O_(l)              H₂SO_4(aq)

 

2. Combination of constituent elements.

(a).Burning hydrogen in chlorine, in the presence of activated charcoal as the catalyst, yields HCl gas which dissolves readily in water to give HCl acid.

H_2(g)     +         Cl_2(g)            ^{activated charcoal}       2HCl_(g)

(b)Heating hydrogen gas and bromine vapour, in the presence of platinum as the catalyst, produces hydrogen bromide which dissolves readily in water to form hydrobromic acid.

H_2(g)         +          Br_2(g)                  ^Platinum         2HBr_(g)

(3)By displacement of a weak or more volatile acid from it salt by a stronger or less

volatile acid. For example

(a)Displacement of the more volatile hydrogen chloride from metallic chloride by the less volatile concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid.

NaCl_(s)   +  H₂SO_4(aq)     NaHSO_4(aq)        +         HCl_(aq)

 

(b)Displacement of weaker trioxoborate (iii) acid from ‘borax’ by tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid.

Na₂B₄O_7(s) +  H₂SO_4(aq)    +   5H₂O_(l)      Na₂SO_4(aq)    +    4H₃BO_3(aq)

Borax                                            Trioxoborate (iii) acid

(4)By precipitating an insoluble sulphide from a metallic salt by hydrogen sulphide

Pb (CH₃COO)_2(aq)    +  H₂S_(g)         PbS_(s)    + CH₃COOH_(aq)

 

Uses of acid

(1) Acids are useful chemicals which are used in many industries to make other consumer chemicals such as fertilizers, detergent and drugs.

(2) They are used in industrial process as drying agents, oxidizing agents and catalysts.

 

USES OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC ACID

Name	Uses
HCl	Needed by industries to make chemicals used to remove rust. Used to clean the surface of metals before electroplating.
H2SO4	Needed by industries to make chemicals used as a drying and dehydrating agent. Used as an electrolyte in lead-acid accumulators Required in oil refineries.
HNO3	Needed by industries for making fertilizers, explosives etc.
Boric acid	Used as mild antiseptic or germicide.
Tartaric acid	Used in making baking soda, soft drinks and health salts
Acetic acid (ethanoic acid)	Used in preserving food. Used in dyeing silk and other textiles.
Citric acid	Used in making fruits juice.
Fatty acid (palmitic and stearic acid)	Used in the manufacture of soap. This process is known as saponification. Fatty acid + Caustic soda     Soap   +     H2O.

EVALUATION

1. Mention three physical properties of acids
2. Using balanced equations, state the chemical properties of acids
3. State two methods of preparing acids
4. Outline the uses of acids

 

pH SCALE

All acidic solution contains H⁺ and all alkaline solution contains OH^– ions. The PH scale measure the concentration of H⁺ ions present in a solution and start from 0 to 14

 

DEFINITION OF pH

pH is defined as the negative logarithms of the hydrogen ion [H⁺] concentration to the base of 10.

i.e. pH = -log [H⁺].

Thus: If [H⁺] = 0.00001 or 10^-5.

log [H⁺] = log10^-5 = -5

pH= -log [H⁺] = – (-5) = 5.

If [H⁺] =10^-x

Therefore, pH= -log10^-x = – (-x) = x

If [H⁺] = 10^-2, PH = 2

 

DEFINITION OF pOH

POH is defined as the negative logarithms of the hydroxide ion [OH^–] concentration to the base of 10.

i.e. pOH= -log [OH^–].

PH is the degree of acidity. A solution with PH 7 is neutral. A solution with PH less than 7, i.e. PH 6,5,4, e.t.c, indicate acidity increasing as the numbers decreases. A solution with PH greater than 7, i.e. PH 8,9,10, e.t.c, indicate alkalinity increasing as the numbers increase.

PH 1    2          3          4          5          6          7          8          9          10        11        12        13        14

Increasing acidity       Neutral     Increasing alkalinity

 

A solution with PH 1 is very acidic [with high concentration of H⁺]. A solution with pH 13 is very alkaline [with low concentration of H⁺, but high concentration of OH^–].

Note that: If pH is 1, it has concentration of H⁺ 10 times greater than pH 2 and 100 times greater than PH 3 e.t.c.

pH 1 > pH 2 > pH 3.

Concentration of H⁺    10^-1      10^-2      10^-3.

0.1       0.01     0.001.

 

Relationship between pH and pOH.

H₂O          H⁺    +     OH^–

From conductivity measurement, [H⁺]=10^-7moldm^-3, [OH^–]=10^-7moldm^-3.

[H⁺] [OH^–] = K_w=10^-7 x 10^-7=10^-14mol²dm^-6.

Taking logarithm of both sides

log ([H⁺] [OH^–]) = logK_w

log [H⁺] + log[OH^–] =logK_w

Subtracting both sides

-(log[H⁺]  +  [OH^–]) = -logK_w

-log [H⁺] – log[OH^–] = -logK_w

-log [H⁺] + (-log [OH^–]) = -logK_w

pH + pOH = PK_w

pK_w = -log10^-14 = -(-14) = 14

Therefore, pH + pOH = 14.

 

Worked examples

1. Find the hydrogen and hydroxide ion concentrations in

(a) 0.01moldm^-3 tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid solution.

(b) 0.001moldm^-3 potassium hydroxide solution.

 

Solution

(a).  H₂SO_4(aq)             2H⁺_(aq)  +  SO₄^2-_(aq)

 

From the equation,  1 moldm^-3 H₂SO₄ ionizes to give 2moldm^-3 H⁺

Therefore, 0.01moldm^-3 H₂SO₄ would ionize to give (2×0.01) moldm^-3 H⁺

[H⁺] = 2×10^-2moldm^-3

[H⁺] [OH^–] = 10^-14

(2×10^-2) [OH^–] = 10^-14

[OH^–] =    10^-14

2x 10^-2

[OH^–] = 0.5x (10^{-14- -2})

[OH^–] =0.5 x10^-14+2

[OH^–] =0.5×10^-12moldm^-3.

(b).     KOH_(aq)                              K⁺_(aq)  +     OH^–_(aq)

From the equation,

1moldm^-3 of KOH ionizes to give 1moldm^-3 of OH^–

10^-3moldm^-3 of KOH would ionize to give 10^-3moldm^-3 of OH^‑

[OH^–]=10^-3moldm^-3.

[H⁺] [OH^–]=10^-14

[H⁺] (10^-3) = 10^-14.

[H⁺] = 10^-14

10^-3

[H⁺] = 10^-14+3

[H⁺] = 10^-11moldm^-3

 

2. A glass cup of orange juice is found to have a POH of 11.40. Calculate the concentration of the hydrogen ions in the juice.

Solution

pH + pOH = 14.

pH = 14 – 11.4.

pH = 2.6.

pH = -log [H⁺]

2.6 =-log [H⁺].

[H⁺] = Antilog (-2.6)

[H⁺] = 0.0025moldm^-3

[H⁺] = 2.5×10^-3moldm^-3.

 

Measuring pH of a solution.

We use pH meter and a universal indicator to detect PH of a solution.

Universal indicator is a mixture of indicator and can change to several colours corresponding to a particular PH and compared with the standard colour provided by the manufacturer of the universal indicator. Universal indicator measures PH between 3 and 11.

Process:-

Put 10cm³ of test solution in a test tube, add 2 drops of universal indicator and compare with the colour chart or place 2 drops of test solution on universal indicator paper and compare the colour with the chart.

 

EVALUATION

1. Define the term pH.
2. What is the pH of a solution having hydrogen ion concentration of 6x 10^-9

mol/dm³

 

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION

1. Give the chemical formula of the following acids (a) Tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid

(b) Trioxonitrate (v) acid (c) Oxochlorate (i) acid

2. What is the IUPAC nomenclature of the following (a) HNO₂ (b) HOBr (c) H₃PO₄ (d) H₂S
3. Determine the oxidation number of Cl and C in each of the following (a) KClO₃

(b) HOCl (c) H₂CO₃ (d) CO₂

4. Mention the laboratory apparatus that are used in for an acid-base titration

What can be used to determine the acidity or alkalinity of a solution?

 

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary School by O. S. Ababio, pp97-99, 102-107

 

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. The following acids are monobasic except (a) HNO₂ (b) HBr (c) HOCl (d) H₂SO₃
2. Which of the following ions is acidic? (a) K⁺ (b) NO₃^– (c) S^2-   (d) H₃O⁺.
3. The number of hydroxonium ions produced by one molecule of an acid in aqueous solution is it (a) acidity (b) basicity (c) concentration (d) pH.
4. The basicity of ethanoic acid CH₃COOH is: (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
5. A solution with pH 7 is (a) Acidic (b) dilute (c) neutral   (d) saturated

 

THEORY

1. 1. What is (i) an acid (ii) basicity of an acid?
2. What is the basicity of tetraoxophosphate (V) acid.
3. The concentrations of H⁺ in two solutions are (a) 1 x10^-4moldm^-3and (b) 5 x 10^-9moldm^-3 . What is the PH of each solution?

Related Lesson Notes:

Lesson Note For SS1 Chemistry (First Term)

Lesson Note For SS1 Chemistry (Second Term)

Lesson Note on Chemistry for SS1 Second Term

WEEK 2 TOPIC: Bases – Properties, Preparation. Salts: Classification, Methods of preparation, Types and Characteristics

Lesson Note On Bases: Properties, Preparation. Salts: Classification, Methods of preparation, Types and Characteristics

CONTENT

• Bases
• Salts
• Efflorescence, deliquescence and hygroscopic

 

BASES AND ALKALIS

A base is a substance which will neutralize an acid to yield a salt and water only. Most oxide and hydroxide of metals are bases e.g. Na₂O, K₂O, MgO, NaOH, KOH e.t.c.

 

An alkalis is a basic hydroxide which is soluble in water NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)₂. A basic oxide (or hydroxide) is a metallic oxide (or hydroxide) which contains ions (O^2‑ or OH^‑) and will react with an acid to form a salt and water only.

 

Note: An exception to this definition is the reaction of lead (IV) oxide with hydrochloric acid to produce lead (ii) chloride (a salt), water and chlorine gas.

PbO_2(s) +   4HCl _(aq)        PbCl_{2 (aq) +}    2H₂O _(l)   +   Cl_{2 (g)}

 

From the equation above, PbO₂ is not a base.    The nature of the hydroxides of the metals varies according to the position of the metal in the electrochemical series, as illustrated below.

Metal	Solubility	Decomposition by heat.
K Na Ca	The hydroxides of these metals are soluble in water and are alkalis.	Hydroxide of sodium and potassium can not be decomposed by heat.
Mg, Al, Zn Fe, Pb, Cu	These metals form hydroxides which are insoluble in water. They are amphoteric except the three hydroxides of Magnesium, iron, and copper.	Decomposed on heating to form oxide and water.
Hg, Ag, Au.	Hydroxides of these metals do not exist.

 

STRENGTH OF BASE

Like an acid, we have strength of a base. The strength of a base can either be weak or strong.

Weak base: Weak base are base that ionizes slightly in aqueous solution to produce positively charged metallic ion and negatively charged hydroxide ion e.g. CaO, NH₃.

 

NH_{3 (g)}    +   H₂O _(l)        NH₄⁺(_aq) OH^–_(aq)

Strong bases: Strong base are base that ionizes completely in aqueous solution to produce positively charged metallic ion and negatively charged hydroxide ion e.g. Na₂O, K₂O.

Na₂O_(s)   +      H₂O _(l)          2NaOH_(aq)

K₂O_(s)      +     H₂O _(l)         2KOH_(aq)

NaOH _(aq)       Na⁺_(aq)    +       OH^–_(aq)

KOH _(aq)         K⁺_(aq)         +       OH^–_(aq)

 

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALIS

1. Alkalis have a bitter taste.
2. Alkalis are soapy to the touch.
3. Alkalis turn red litmus blue.
4. Concentrated form of the caustic alkalis of NaOH and KOH are corrosive.

 

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALIS

1. Reaction with acid: All base react with acid to form salt and water only.

NaOH_(aq)   +    HCl_(aq)         NaCl_(aq)       +    H₂O_(l)

MgO_(s)      +   2HNO_3(aq)          Mg(NO₃)_2(aq)   +   H₂O_(l)

2. Displacement of volatile ammonia from ammonium salt by a non volatile alkali: if an ammonium salt is warmed with an alkali (in the presence of water) ammonia gas is liberated

NaOH _(aq)   +      NH₄Cl _(aq)       NaCl _(aq)    +     H₂O_(l)   +     NH_3(g)

Ca (OH)_2(aq)  +  (NH₄)₂SO_4(aq)       CaSO_4(aq)   +    2H₂O_(l)  +   2NH_3(g)

 

USES OF ALKALIS/BASE

Names	Uses
NaOH	Used in the manufacture of soap, Na salts and plastic Used in petrol refining.
KOH	Used in the manufacture of liquid soap Used in dyeing and electroplating.
Ca(OH)2	Used in manufacture of  mortar, cement and plaster Used in dissolving acidic soil.
Mg(OH)2	Used in the manufacture of toothpaste Used as a laxative.
Aqueous NH3	Used for bleaching cloth Used as detergent.

 

EVALUATION

1. Define alkali giving examples
2. State three physical properties of alkalis
3. Using balanced equations, state two chemical properties of bases
4. State the uses of bases

 

NEUTRALIZATION REACTION

Neutralization reaction can be defined in three major ways.

1. In terms of acid and the base present.
2. In terms of H⁺ ion and OH^– present in the acid and base.
3. In terms of oxonium ions (H₃O⁺) and hydroxide ion (OH^–).

Neutralization is the process whereby an acid react completely with an alkalis/bases to form salt and water.

HCl_(aq)   +   NaOH_(aq)          NaCl_(aq)    +    H₂O_(l)

Neutralization is the combination of hydrogen ion (H⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH^–) to form water molecules. A salt is also form at the same time.

H⁺_(aq)    +     OH^–            H₂O_(l)

Neutralization can also be defined as the combination of oxonium ions (H₃O⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH^–) to form water molecule. A salt is also formed at the same time.

H₃OCl_(aq)        +      KOH_(aq)            KCl_(aq)    +    H₂O_(l)

(H₃O)₂SO_4(aq)   +      2NaOH_(aq)          Na₂SO_4(aq)    +     4H₂O_(l)

H₃O⁺_(aq)              +      OH^–_(aq)             2H₂O_(l)

 

OXONIUM ION

In aqueous solution, the hydrogen ion become associated with a water molecule to form oxonium ion (H₃O⁺).This is an example of a coordinate covalent combination.

H⁺    +   H₂O           H₃O⁺

During neutralization, oxonium ion H₃O⁺ behaves as hydrogen ion and thus reacts with hydroxide ion (OH^–) to form water molecules.

 

EVALUATION

1. Define the term neutralization.
2. Write TWO balanced equations to show neutralization reactions.

 

SALTS

A salt is referred to as the compound formed when all or part of the ionisable hydrogen ion in an acid is replaced by a metallic or ammonium ion e.g.

HCl_(aq) + NaOH_(aq) → NaCl_(aq) + H₂O_(l)

H₂SO_4(aq) + KOH_(aq) → KHSO_4(aq) + H₂O_(l)

 

TYPES OF SALTS

There are five main types of salts namely:

1. Normal salt.
2. Acid salts
3. Basic salts
4. Double salts.
5. Complex salts.

 

1. Normal salts: are the salts formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ion in the acid has been completely replaced by a metal ion e.g. NaCl, K₂SO₄, Na₃PO₄, NaNO₃ etc. Normal salts are neutral to litmus

HCl_(aq)   +    NaOH_(aq)              NaCl_(aq)  +    H₂O_(l)

H₂SO_4(aq)  +  KOH_(aq)                K₂SO_4(aq)  +   H₂O_(aq)

 

2. Acid salts: Acid salts are formed when the replaceable hydrogen ion in the acids are only partially replaced by a metal e.g. NaHSO₄, Na₂HPO₄, NaH₂PO₄, NaHCO₃. They can be produce from acids which contain more than one replaceable hydrogen ion. Acids with two replaceable hydrogen ions can form only one acid salt while acid with three replaceable hydrogen ions can form two different acid salts

H₂SO_4(aq)    +    NaOH_(aq)              NaHSO_4(aq)  +  H₂O_(l)

2H₃PO_4(aq)   +   3NaOH_(aq)              NaH₂PO_4(aq)  + Na₂HPO_4(aq)  +3H₂O_(l)

Acid salts turn blue litmus red. Acid salts can be converted to normal salt if the remaining replaceable hydrogen ions in the acid salt are replaced in with metallic ions.

KHSO_4(aq)   +    KOH_(aq)               K₂SO_4(aq)  +  H₂O_(l)

 

3. Basic salts: Basic salts are formed when only part of the hydroxide ions of a base are replaced by the negative ions from an acid. It can occur when there is insufficient supply of acid for complete neutralization of the base e.g Zn(OH)Cl , Mg(OH)Cl, Mg(OH)NO₃, Bi(OH)₂NO₃ e. t .c.

Zn(OH)_2(aq)   +   HCl_(aq)              Zn(OH)Cl_(aq)  +   H₂O_(l)

 

Because of the presence of hydroxide ion in the salt, it has basic properties. Basic salts turn red litmus blue. Basic salts react with excess acid to form a normal salt and water only.

Mg(OH)NO_3(aq)   +  HNO_3(aq)              Mg(NO₃)_2(aq)   +  H₂O_(l)

 

4. Double salts: Double salts are salt which ionize to produce three different types of ions in solution. Usually two of these are positively charged (metallic or NH4⁺ ion) while the other is negatively charged e.g. (NH₄)₂Fe(SO₄)₂.6H₂O, KAl(SO₄)₂.12H₂O, KCr(SO₄)₂.12H₂O.

(NH₄)₂Fe(SO₄)₂.6H₂O: Ammonium iron (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) hexahydrate.

KAl (SO₄)₂.12H₂O: Aluminium Potassium tetraoxosulphate (V) dodecahydrate (Potash alum).

KCr (SO₄)₂.12H₂O: Chromium (III) Potassium tetraoxosulphate (VI) dodecahydrate (Chrome alum).

 

5. Complex salts: Complex salts contains complex ion i.e ion consisting of a charged group of atom e.g. Na₂Zn(OH)₄, K₄Fe(CN)₆, NaAl(OH)₄.

Na₂Zn(OH)₄: Sodium tetrahydroxozincate (ii)

K₄Fe(CN)₆ : Potassium hexacyanoferrate (iii)

NaAl(OH)₄: Sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate (iii)

Na₂Zn(OH)₄              2Na⁺   +   [Zn(OH)₄]^2-

K₄Fe(CN)₆                 4K⁺    +     [Fe(CN)₆]^4-.

 

HYDROLYSIS OF SALT

Some salts undergoes hydrolysis in water to give an acidic or alkaline medium (solution) e.g. Na₂CO₃, NaHCO₃, AlCl₃, Na₂S, NH₄Cl, CH₃COONa e.t.c.

Na₂CO₃ + H₂O                   NaOH   +   H₂CO₃.

AlCl₃   +   H₂O                  Al (OH)₃  +   HCl.

Na₂S    +   H₂O                  NaOH    +    H₂S

Hydrolysis of salt occurs when a salt react with water e.g salt of strong acid and weak base gives acidic solution. The change in PH of solution is due to hydrolysis.

 

USES OF SALTS

1. NH₄Cl is used as an electrolyte in dry cell (Leclanche cell)
2. CaCO₃ is used as medicine to neutralise acidity in the stomach
3. CaCl₂ is used as antifreeze while fused CaCl₂ is used as a drying agent and also in dessicator.
4. CaSO₄ is used for making plaster of Paris.
5. CuSO₄ is used in dyeing and calico printing.
6. MgSO₄ is used as a laxative.
7. KNO₃ is used for making gunpowder, matches and soil fertilizer.
8. NaCl is used for preserving food and in glazing pottery.
9. ZnCl₂ is used in petroleum refining

 

EVALUATION

1. Define salt?
2. List the five main types of salts giving two examples each
3. Name four salts and state the use of each of them

 

SOLUBILITY RULE

S/NO	SOLUBLE SALTS	INSOLUBLE SALTS
1.	All Na+, K+ and NH4+ salt
2.	All trioxonitrate (v)
3.	All chloride except	PbCl2, HgCl2 and AgCl are soluble in hot water.
4.	Trioxocarbonate (iv) of Na+, K+ and NH4+	All other trioxocarbonate (iv).
5.	Trioxosulphate (vi) of Na+, K+, NH4+ & Cu2+	All other trioxosulphate (IV)
6.	Sulphide of Na+, K+ and NH4+	All other sulphide.
7.	All tetraoxosulphate (vi) except	PbSO4, BaSO4 and CaSO4 are slightly soluble in H2O
8.	All hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv)
S/NO	SOLUBLE BASE/ALKALIS	INSOLUBLE BASE/ALKALIS
1.	K2O, Na2O are very soluble MgO, CaO are slightly soluble	Other oxide are insoluble
2.	NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2 are very soluble Mg (OH)2 is slightly soluble.	Other hydroxides are insoluble.

 

METHOD OF PREPARATION OF SALTS

The method of preparing a particular salt depends on its:

1. Solubility in water
2. Stability to heat.

It is necessary, therefore, for us to become familiar with the simple rules of solubility indicated above. Knowing the solubility of the salt enables us to determine which method to be used.

 

SOLUBLE SALT

Soluble salts can be prepared by the following method:

1. Neutralization of an acid by an alkali
2. Action of dilute acid on a metal.
3. Action of dilute acid on an insoluble base.
4. Action of dilute acid on trioxocarbonate (IV).

 

RECOVERING SOLUBLE SALTS FROM SOLUTION

This can be done by:

1. Heating to dryness: This is used to prepare soluble salts which are not destroyed or decomposed by heat e.g. most chlorides such as NaCl, ZnCl₂, FeCl₂ and FeCl₃ are recovered by heating.
2. Crystallization: This is used to prepare salt which are easily decomposed or destroyed by dry heating. All trioxonitrate (V) and tetraoxosulphate (VI) are recovered by crystallization.

 

INSOLUBLE SALTS

Insoluble salts can be prepared by the following method:

1. Double decomposition or precipitation.

Pb (NO₃)_2(aq)    +    2NaCl _(aq)                  2NaNO_{3 (aq)}   + PbCl_2(s)

AgNO_{3 (aq)}       +      NH₄Cl _(aq)                 NH₄NO_{3 (aq)}   + AgCl_(s)

 

2. Direct combination of 2 elements.

Fe_(s)    +    S_(s)                    FeS_(s)

2Fe(_s) +   3Cl_2(g)                 2FeCl_3(s)

 

ANHYDROUS AND HYDRATED SALT

Anhydrous salts: are salts which do not contain water and cannot be crystallized out from aqueous solution.

 

Hydrated salts/salts with water of crystallization: are salts which combine chemically with water. The water molecule is loosely held to the salt molecule and when heated, such salt lose their water of crystallization. The water attached is known as water of crystallization e.g

 

Cu(NO₃)₂.3H₂O:  Copper (ii) trioxonitrate (v) trihydrate.

MgSO₄.7H₂O: Magnesium tetraoxosulphate (vi) heptahydrate.

FeSO₄.7H₂O: Iron (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi) heptahydrate.

 

Salts without water of crystallization	Salts with water of crystallization
NaCl	CuSO4.5H2O
KNO3	FeSO4.7H2O
KMnO4	ZnSO4.7H2O
(NH4)2SO4	Na2CO3.10H2O
K2SO4	Cu(NO3)2.3H2O
Pb(NO3)2	MgSO4.7H2O
AgNO3	Zn(NO3)2.6H2O.

 

Calculation of water of crystallization

14g of hydrated H₂C₂O₄.xH₂O was heated to give an anhydrous salt weighing 9.99g.

(a). Calculate the value of x.

(b). Give the formula of the hydrated salt.

(c). Calculate the % of water of crystallization.

 

Solution

(a).       Mass of hydrated salt  =         Molar mass of hydrated salt

Mass of water molecule                      Molar mass of water molecule

14           =    (90+18x)

(14-9.99)              18x

14     =    (90 +18x)

4.01            18x

14(18x) = 4.01 (90 + 18x)

252x = 360.9 + 72.18x

252x – 72.18x = 360.9

179.82x = 360.9

x = 360.9/179.82

x = 2.007

x = 2 to the nearest whole number.

(b) Formula of hydrated salt = H₂C₂0₄.2H₂0.

(c) To calculate the % of water of crystallization:

% of water of crystallization = Mass of water x 100%

Total mass

=        36        x 100

(90 + 36)

=   36    x   100

126

= 3600

126

= 28.57%

 

EFFLORESCENCE, DELIQUESCENCE AND HYGROSCOPIC

When certain compound is exposed to the air, they either lose their water of crystallization or they absorb moisture from their surroundings. The term efflorescent, deliquescent and hygroscopic are used to describe such compound.

 

EFFLORESCENTS: are substances which on exposure to air, lose some or all of their water of crystallization. The phenomenon or process is efflorescence. There is loss of weight or mass of the substances.

e.g Na₂CO₃.10H₂O             Na₂CO₃.H₂O     +       9H₂O

Other examples are Na₂SO₄.10H₂O, MgSO₄.7H₂O and CuSO₄.5H₂O e.t.c

 

DELIQUESCENTS: are substances that absorb so much water from air and form a solution e.g. NaOH, CaCl₂, FeCl₃, MgCl₂, KOH and P₄O₁₀. There is a gain in weight.

 

HYGROSCOPIC: are substances which absorb moisture on exposure to the atmosphere without forming a solution. If they are solids, no solution will be formed but if a liquid absorb water, it gets diluted. There is little or no difference in mass e.g Conc. H₂SO₄, NaNO₃, CuO, CaO and anhydrous Na₂CO₃.

 

DRYING AGENTS

These are substances which have high affinity for water or moisture. They are either deliquescent or hygroscopic. They remove water molecules to effect physical change. Drying agents are different from dehydrating agents which removes elements of water i.e hydrogen and oxygen atoms or intra-molecular water.

Drying agents which react with gases are not used to dry the gas e.g conc. H₂SO₄ is not used to dry NH₃ and H₂S gas.

NH_3(g)        +      H₂SO_4(aq)         (NH₄)₂SO_4(aq)

H₂S_(g)     +      H₂SO_4(aq)          2H₂O_(l)  +    SO_2(g)   +    S_(s)

Drying agent	Gases
Conc. H2SO4	All gases except NH3 & H2S
Fused CaCl2	All gases except NH3
CaO or quicklime	For ammonia
P2O5	All gases except ammonia
Silica gel	All gases

Salts are usually dried in dessicator.

 

EVALUATION

1. Using balanced equations, state two methods of preparing: (a) Soluble salt (b) insoluble salt
2. How can soluble salts be recovered from their solution?

 

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION

1. Calculate the percentage of water in sodium trioxocarbonate (iv) heptahydrate
2. What is the number of molecules in 6.4g of sulphur (iv) oxide (N_A=6.0X10²³/mol)
3. Write an equation to show the acid formed when phosphorus (v) oxide is dissolved in cold water and name the acid formed
4. Differentiate between a base and an alkali
5. Define: Efflorescence, Deliquescence and Hygroscopy

 

READING ASSIGNMENT

New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by O.Y Ababio pages 100-101 and 108-115.

 

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. The two types of bonds that exist in H₃O⁺ are a. covalent and ionic b. co-ordinate covalent and covalent c. metallic and ionic d. polar covalent and metallic
2. How many moles of hydrogen ions are there in 50cm³ of 0.20moldm^-3 H₂SO₄?
3. 0.01 b 0.02 c 0.10 d 0.20
4. Which of these is not recovered through dry heating (evaporation)?
5. NaClO₃ b. NH₄NO₃ c. CuHSO₄ d. NaHCO₃.
6. Which pH value indicates a basic solution? a. -1 b.3 c.9 d.7
7. All common gases are dried using P₂O₅ except a. NO₂ b. NH₃ c. SO₂ d. H₂S

 

THEORY

1. Give the reason for each of the following:
2. Sodium salts cannot be prepared by double decomposition
3. Na₂CO_3(aq) which is a salt solution, turns red litmus blue.
4. 1.34g of hydrated Na₂SO₄ was heated to give an anhydrous salt weighing

0.71g.

1. Calculate the number of molecules of water of crystallization
2. Give the formula of the hydrated salt [Na=23, S=32, O=16, H=1].

 

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